ENGL 3413: World Literature

John M. Mercer, Professor of English

Northeastern State University, Broken Arrow, OK

Study Guide 8: Machiavelli and Montaigne

Revised 10-20-08

 

“The Renaissance in Europe,” 1475

The Renaissance began as early as 1350 in Italy and ended as late as 1660 in England. 

  1. What is the literal meaning of the word “Renaissance”?  Of what was there a rebirth in the Renaissance?
  2. Who are the ancients?  What is antiquity?
  3. What are the classics?  What is classical learning?  What is the Classical Period?
  4. What is the meaning of the term “Middle Ages”?  When was this term coined?  What connotation did it have?

 

Classical literary works were already revered in the Middle Ages (as shown in Dante's Divine Comedy), but many classical works, especially in Greek, had been lost.  At the end of the Middle Ages, however, European Crusaders raiding Arab libraries recovered many manuscripts of classical works that had been lost to the West.

 

In the Renaissance, the humanities were Greek and Latin, on which all university education was focused.

  1. Today the definition of the humanities is much broader.  What disciplines are now included in the humanities?

 

In the Renaissance, humanists were those who studied Greek and Latin works.  Machiavelli and Montaigne were both humanists.  The humanists’ study of the classics led to a flowering of new creativity in the arts.

 

  1. Find passages in the assigned reading that relate to each of the following values of the Renaissance:
    1. emphasis on life in this world (while still believing in life after death)
    2. emphasis on the beauty (rather than the morality) of human behavior
    3. emphasis on using human abilities most effectively in this world, especially in the arts (while still acknowledging God as source and sustainer of life)
  2. What is a “Renaissance man”?

 

Machiavelli

  1. Machiavelli (1469-1527) lived in Florence, Italy.  What other writers studied in this unit were also from Florence?  Dante, Machiavelli, and Galileo are all buried in the church of  Santa Croce in Florence.  Some of their tombs are shown in the film A Room with a View. 

Machiavelli was active in politics.  When the city-state of Florence was a republic (not a dictatorship), he served as Secretary to the Ten of War and Peace, the group that controlled the Florentine military. In this capacity, Machiavelli traveled widely on diplomatic missions to other governments. One dictator he visited was Cesare Borgia. This experience with rulers helped shape his political philosophy.

  1. In The Prince, what does Machiavelli say about Cesare Borgia (1493)?  What does he learn by observing his rule?
  2. As a humanist, Machiavelli’s favorite genre for study was classical (especially Roman) history. How is Machiavelli’s knowledge of classical history apparent in The Prince?  Refer to specific passages.

 

Background for The Prince

Published in 1513, The Prince is a political treatise.

  1. What is a “treatise”?
  2. What other genre labels that we have studied apply to The Prince?  Is it written in prose or poetry?  Is it fiction or nonfiction?  What is its main purpose?
  3. According to what Machiavelli says at the beginning of your reading from The Prince, chapter 15, what was the content of previous books about politics?
  4. What does Machiavelli want to accomplish in The Prince?  
  5. Do you think Machiavelli fulfills his stated purpose?

 

In addition to his stated purpose, Machivelli also had some underlying reasons for writing The Prince:

  1. On page 1474, look at the map of Western Europe in the 16th century.  What do you observe about the political organization of Italy in the Renaissance?
  2. On page 1498t, beginning with “And if you consider Italy . . . ,” what does Machiavelli say about the political and military position of Italy?  What does he mean when he says that Italy is “without dykes”?
  3. Extra-credit research: When did Italy finally become one unified nation? 

 

Machiavelli’s assumptions include the following:

  1. What particular passages in the textbook’s introduction to Machiavelli and in The Prince reveal Machiavelli’s view of human nature?
  2. Traditional Christian theology also teaches that human nature is evil—but uses this doctrine to show mankind’s need for God.  In contrast, how does Machiavelli apply this doctrine to the prince?

 

The Prince

  1. Machiavelli uses the Renaissance definition of “prince” as a ruler, NOT the son of a ruler. Look up “prince” in your college dictionary.  Which definition is appropriate here?
  2. The overall philosophy of The Prince is “The end justifies the means.”  What is “the end” of a prince (or one who wishes to be a prince)?  What are “the means” that Machiavelli believes the prince should use?
  3. What is the definition of the word “amoral”?  How does this adjective apply to Machiavelli’s advice and to the behavior of a prince who follows it?
  4. For each of the first three chapter headings below, answer the following and be prepared to discuss your answers in class. 
    1. What is the main piece of advice given the prince or “wanna-be” prince in this chapter?
    2. Do our American political leaders follow this advice?
    3. If so, what specific examples can you give from American politics (especially concerning U.S. presidents and presidential candidates)?  Most observers believe that Machiavelli correctly describes how power politics works and how successful leaders operate.  No political party is exempt from using Machiavellian tactics.    

 

“On Liberality and Parsimony,” 1492

  1. In this context, “liberality” means “being generous with money.”  What dictionary definition corresponds to this meaning? What is the definition of “parsimony”?
  2. What reputation should the prince strive to have?  What should he actually do in practice?  Why?

 

“On Cruelty and Pity,” 1493b-94

  1. This section concerns whether a prince should desire to be feared, loved, and/or hated.  According to Machiavelli, what is the best answer to this question? 
  2. What is the second most desirable alternative?  Why? 
  3. What is the least desirable alternative?  Why?
  4. Does this Machiavellian principle apply equally well to dictatorships and democracies?  Why or why not?
  5. What does this chapter reveal about Machiavelli’s view of human nature?

                                                                             

“In What Way Faith Should Be Kept by Princes,” 1495-96

  1. In this chapter “faith” means “promises.”  By implication, what promises should a prince or wanna-be prince make?  What promises should he keep?
  2. How should appearance (the prince’s image) differ from reality (the prince’s actual behavior)?

 

“The Power of Fortune in Human Affairs,” 1497

1.      What definition of “fortune” does Machiavelli use here?

2.      How much of what people do is determined by “fortune” as opposed to personal choice?

3.      What does Machiavelli mean by “the quality of the times” (1498m) and “the nature of the times” (1498, last full paragraph)?  Why does the quality or nature of the times matter to the prince?

4.      Is it better for the prince to be “rash” (aggressive) or “over-cautious” (passive)?  Why?

5.      In personifying Fortune as a woman who must be beaten into submission, Machiavelli is referring to wife-beating, apparently an accepted practice in the 16th century. His purpose, however, is not to encourage violence against women but to advise the prince in dealing with fortune.  In what sense is Fortune like a shrewish wife?  What is Machiavelli’s advice here?

 

6.      What important values of Renaissance are exemplified in The Prince?  How do these values contrast with those of the Middle Ages?

 

Montaigne

Montaigne (1533-92), a French aristocrat, withdrew from political service at age 38 to read, reflect, and write his essays.  His retirement was interrupted for four years when he was asked to serve as mayor of Bordeaux.  Montaigne’s 93 essays—titled Essays—were published in three volumes (1580, 1588, and 1595).  The last volume was posthumous.

  1. What does it mean to say that a publication is posthumous?  What does it mean to say that a person is posthumous?

 

John Folio’s English translation of Montaigne’s Essays (1603) influenced Francis Bacon, the first English essayist, and also Shakespeare. 

  1. One passage in Shakespeare’s play The Tempest comes almost verbatim from Florio’s translation of Montaigne’s essay “Of Cannibals.”  Extra-credit research: Use the footnote in “Of Cannibals” (1510b) to locate the passage in The Tempest. Compare the passage in Montaigne with the passage in Shakespeare.  Explain how Shakespeare uses Montaigne.

 

Essay as a Genre

Montaigne is the creator of the essay as a genre; he was the first to apply the word “essay” (“essai” in French), meaning “an attempt,” to a literary work. 

  1. In what sense is an essay by Montaigne “an attempt”?   Why does he choose this title for his new genre?

 

Today the essay genre is subdivided into the formal essay and the informal essay.  Montaigne wrote a kind of informal essay known today as the personal essay. 

2.   If you wanted to read a formal essay today, where would you expect to find it?

  1. If you wanted to read a personal essay today, where would you expect to find it?

 

Evaluate to what extent each of the following characteristics of the personal essay applies to the assigned essays by Montaigne:

  1. The essay is written in prose, not poetry.
  2. The essay is brief.
  3. The essay often but not always has an innovative subject.
  4. As suggested by the name of the genre (“an attempt”), the essay’s treatment of its subject is tentative, incomplete, and subjective.  Montaigne is known for his open mind, his lack of sureness.  A frequent question in his essays is “What do I know?”
  5. The structure or organization of the essay is not rigid or tight but loose, sometimes (as in Montaigne’s “Of Cannibals”) rambling.

 

The following traits of Montaigne’s essays are not necessarily true of all personal essays.  Find examples of these traits in the assigned essays:

  1. Montaigne’s essays have a conversational, intimate tone.  For example, Montaigne admits what he doesn’t know.  In “Of Cannibals” where does Montaigne do this?
  2. Montaigne’s essays were not ornate or hard to follow for his original French readers. For us, however, reading in modern English translation, his essays are more difficult.  Why?  What barriers to understanding do you face when you read Montaigne’s essays?
  3. Montaigne makes extensive use of classical allusions and quotations. Why does he do this?  How does this practice reflect the time in which he lived?

 

“To the Reader,” 1506

Montaigne concludes this introduction by stating, “Thus, reader, I am myself the matter [subject] of my book; you would be unreasonable to spend your leisure on so frivolous and vain a subject.”

  1. Since Montaigne does NOT write about his personal life, in what sense is he the subject of his essays?
  2. Why do you think Montaigne tells his readers not to waste their time reading his essays?
  3. Extra-credit research: Sprezzatura is an Italian word coined by Castiglione in the early 1500s?  What does it mean?  (Because this is an Italian word, it is not found in most English dictionaries, but you can “Google” it.)  How does the above statement by Montaigne exemplify the Renaissance concept of sprezzatura?

 

“Of Cannibals,” 1506

  1. Montaigne usually begins the title of each essay with the word “Of.”  How does this reflect the characteristics of the personal essay (see above)?
  2. Is the subject of this essay innovative or unusual?  In what way?
  3. What is the source (in general) of the anecdote Montaigne uses to introduce his essay?  What is the point of this anecdote?
  4. Each of Montaigne’s essays has a thesis or central idea.  In the last sentence of paragraph 1 of “Of Cannibals” (1507t), Montaigne states his thesis in general terms. What is the definition of “vulgar” in this context? What does this sentence mean?  How does it apply to the cannibals whom he discusses?  (You may not be able to answer this until you have finished reading the essay.)
  5. In paragraph 2 (1507t), Montaigne explains how he came to know about “barbarians,” specifically cannibals.  How did he?  (“I had with me” means “I had living on my estate.”)  Where is “Antarctic France”?  What is it called today?
  6. Paragraph 3 begins a long digression concerning Atlantis, the lost continent of classical mythology.  What is a digression?  Why does Montaigne include digressions?
  7. The purpose of this digression is to determine whether Antarctic France is the same as Atlantis.  At the end of the digression (1508, 2nd paragraph from bottom), what conclusion does Montaigne reach concerning this issue?
  8. How does Montaigne vouch for the veracity of his information about cannibals (1508b)?
  9. What is Montaigne’s definition of “barbarism” (1509, 2nd paragraph)? By what standard, according to Montaigne, do we judge what is barbarous and what is civilized?  What is his attitude toward these judgments?  Does Montaigne believe in cultural relativism (relativity) or in absolutism?  What is ethnocentrism?  Is Montaigne ethnocentric?
  10. Is Montaigne’s description of the lives of the South American natives (1509-11) mostly positive or negative?  Does he depict them as “noble savages”?  To what myths and writings does he compare their culture (1509b-10t)?  To what book by Plato does he allude (1510t)?  Why?
  11. What are the two primary values of the natives (1511)?
  12. The first reference to cannibalism appears on 1512t.  Under what circumstances do the natives practice cannibalism? Why does Montaigne think they do this?
  13. According to this same paragraph, whose actions are shown to be more cruel than the cannibals’?  Why?
  14. On 1512, carefully read the 1st and 3rd new paragraphs, which clearly state the essay’s thesis. Restate this thesis in your own words.  How does Montaigne challenge European society?  What does he say is done “on the pretext of piety and religion”?  What is he referring to?
  15. What motivates the South American natives’ warfare (1512b-13t)?  What does NOT motivate it?        
  16. What is the captors’ motivation when they threaten prisoners of war (1513)?  How do the prisoners respond to this treatment (1514 m-b)?
  17. When three natives were brought to the court of the French king, what comments did they make about European society (1515b-16t)?
  18. Explain Montaigne’s concluding paragraph (1516m).  Why does he say, “They don't wear breeches”?  What are “breeches”?  What is Montaigne’s tone here?

 

“Of the Inconsistency of Our Actions,” 1516m

  1. In the first sentence, “human actions” means “actions of a single person.”  In what sense do these actions “contradict each other”?  How does the Roman emperor Nero exemplify this contradiction?
  2. In general, what is the source of the quotations in Montaigne’s essays?  Why? 
  3. The thesis of this essay is stated on 1517t. What is meant by “men’s inconsistency”?  State the thesis in your own words. 
  4. Montaigne includes some examples from current events of his day.  How does the anecdote about the woman who harmed herself to avoid rape (1518m) relate to the thesis?
  5. How does the anecdote about Hassan in battle (1518b-19t) relate to the thesis?
  6. What does Montaigne say about his own behavior (1519m) that relates to the thesis? 
    In the sentence beginning “Bashful, insolent” (1519m), why does he include a long list of pairs of adjectives?  If you know the meaning of only one adjective in a pair, how could you determine the meaning of the other adjective?
  7. Identify two sentences that restate the thesis (1519m, 1521t).
  8. The end of the concluding paragraph (1521m) suggests that we apply the thesis of this essay by ceasing to do WHAT?
  9. Class discussion: How are Montaigne’s essays typical of the Renaissance?